Advaita Vedanta Study – Introduction – Part III – Indian Schools of Philosophy

Summary

All schools of Indian philosophy (except carvaka) have similar objective – to analyze the suffering in lives of humans and to prescribe methods for liberation. The starting and finishing positions are the same, but the paths are different. The paths include karma, yoga, meditation, devotion, logic, and knowledge. Vast repository of analytical and experiential and realized knowledge is available to us for to use. This knowledge is universal in nature, devoid of any religion and regional custom and practices. The school of philosophy are called Indian because the scriptures and proponents are in India.

Darsana and philosophy

Factually, there are Indian schools of darsana. Conventionally, darshna is equated with philosophy. However, the two terms are different. These differences are analyzed in the document resulting in the following equation:

Darsana = Intellectual pursuit (traditional philosophy) + Experience (‘the revelation of the nature of reality’ or ‘the vision of ultimate truth and reality’)

Twelve schools of Indian philosophy

There are twelve school of Indian philosophy. Some consider Indian philosophy to be synonymous with Hindu philosophy. This would be correct only if the word ‘Hindu’ refers to ‘Indian’ in a geographical sense. But it would be misleading if the word ‘Hindu’ refers to the religious faith known as Hinduism.

Primary purpose

All Indian schools of philosophy (except carvaka) discovered to their dismay that despite man’s best effort, life is full of misery. Hence how to escape from this misery, not only today or tomorrow, but for all times to come, became the chief goal of their endeavor.

Place of vedas and/or sruti

1. The twelve school are divided into two groups based on the non-rejection or rejection of the authority of vedas in their teachings. Each group consists of six school. The group of philosophy schools which accepts the authority of vedas are called astika or orthodox, while the group of schools which do not accept the authority of vedas are called nastika or heterodox.
2. The group of orthodox schools include: nyaya, vaisesika, sankhya, yoga, mimamsa, and vedanta.
   1. All these schools do not reject the authority of vedas. However, there are further distinctions.
      1. Nyaya, vaisesika, sankhya, and yoga school does not reject the authority of vedas but are based on independent sruti’s authored by their proponents.
      2. Mimamsa and vedanta school are solely based on vedic scriptures. They also have sruti’s authored by their proponents.
         1. Mimamsa school emphasizes on the ritualistic aspect of vedas.
         2. Vedanta school emphasizes on the speculative aspect of vedas.
      3. Vedanta school is further divided into ten sub-school: advaita, aupadhika-bhedabheda, visista-advaita, dvaita, svabhavika-bhedabedha (dvaita-advaita), saiva-visista-advaita, visista-advaita, suddha-advaita, avibhaga-advaita, and acintya-bhedabheda.
      4. Advaita vedanta sub-school has three sub-sub-school based on empirical relation between brahman and jiva: abhasa-vada (pseudo appearance), avaccheda-vada (limitation), and pratibimba-vada (reflection).
   2. The group of heterodox schools include: carvaka, jainism, and buddhism.
      1. Buddhism school is divided into four sub-school: vaibhasika, sautrantika, yogacara, and madhyamika.

Place of authority and reasoning

The division of schools, as discussed above, based on the vedas and sruti’s, can be traced to the distinctions in the method of speculation adopted by them.

1. Solutions to the problems like ‘what is the ultimate cause of the world?’, ‘does god exist?’, ‘what is the nature of god?’, cannot be obtained by observation. The philosopher must employ his imagination and reasoning and find out answers consistent with truths already established by experience.
2. Like most other branches of knowledge, philosophy proceeds from the known to the unknown. The foundation of philosophy is experience, and the chief tool is reason. But the question arises here: what experience should form the basis for philosophy? Indian thinkers are not unanimous on this point.
   1. Some hold the view that philosophy should be based on ordinary normal experience, that is, the truths discovered and accepted by people in general. The nyaya, vaisesika, sankhya, and carvaka schools accept this view; the buddha and jaina schools also accept it mostly.
   2. Others hold the view that matters such as God, state of liberation etc., cannot be addressed correctly based on the ordinary experience. For these matters, we must depend on the few saints, seers, or prophets who have direct realization (saksatkara or darsana) of such things – thus, authority or the testimony of reliable person and scriptures form the basis of philosophy. Mimamsa and vedanta schools follow this method – many of their theories are based on vedas and upanisads. Even the buddhas and jaina schools depend sometime on the teaching of buddha and jaina who are regarded as perfect and omniscient.
   3. Reasoning is the chief instrument of speculation for philosophers of both groups. The difference is that while by the former reasoning is always made to follow the lead of ordinary experience, by the latter, reasoning is made to follow in some matters and authority in others.

Evolution of schools

1. It was mentioned earlier that Indian schools of philosophy were started by a particular rsis or a sage. Their teaching was embodied in work composed in sutra-style, (mnemonic statements, extremely laconic) which were easily committed to memory and orally transmitted for generations.
2. In course of time, as writing became more common, scholars and teachers at these schools produced commentaries and expositions. The original concepts, theories, and principles were continuedly further clarified, expanded, and systematized (CES).
3. When other schools challenged their teachings, they had to defend themselves vigorously. This challenge and counter-challenge, based on logic and reasoning, gave rise to a wealth of literature on these schools. There was a well-established method of philosophical discussion (used even today). The method consists of three steps.
   1. Purvapaksa – state the views of the opponent’s case
   2. Khandana – refutation of the opponent’s case
   3. Uttrarapaksa or siddhanta – statement and proof of philosopher’s own position

Common features

Despite serious differences on the theoretical aspect, there is a remarkable harmony on the practical aspect amongst these schools.

1. All the systems recognize the presence of human suffering. Attainment of a state of total freedom from misery called liberation is the final goal.
2. All the systems regard philosophy as a practical necessity and cultivate it to understand how life can be best led.
3. The goal of total liberation does not narrow the scope on Indian philosophy to ethics and theology. All Indian schools of philosophy include the traditionally accepted components of western philosophy – metaphysics – ontology, epistemology – logic, and ethics-axiology. The difference is that in Indian schools all the components are intertwined, while in western schools they are clearly demarked.
4. The goal of liberation can be achieved only through right knowledge. But right knowledge is not just intellectual knowledge, but direct and actual experience of one’s real nature as the sprit, the soul, transcending the body-mind complex.
5. The firm faith in ‘an eternal moral order’ dominated the entire history of Indian philosophy, except for carvaka materialist.
6. All schools except for carvaka believe in the law of karma and consider this world as providing us with a moral stage for acting our roles satisfactorily, gradually improving our spiritual fibre.

This document is third part of the five parts of the introduction to the study of advaita vedanta

I – Why should I study and practice the advaita vedanta philosophy

II – How should I study of advaita vedanta philosophy

III – Indian schools of philosophy

IV– Vedic scriptures

V – Advaita vedanta philosophy

Relevance

Overview and comparison of the twelve schools of Indian darsana is important to the study of advaita vedanta because of following reasons:

1. This situates advaita vedanta in the background of vast and profound philosophical undertakings over a period from 500 BC to 800 AD.
2. Advaita vedanta is the last established school of Indian philosophy (8^th century AD). Therefore, all the concepts, principles, and theories of other schools were available to advaita school to ensure the thoroughness and universal nature of their own philosophy.
3. This document compares (similarity and difference) advaita and other philosophies. This comparative data reinforces understanding of the advaita concepts.